II. Reading Comprehension
A. Teachers and experimenters often find tokens and other conditioned reinforcers more effective and easier to use than primary reinforcers because (a) few primary reinforcers are available in the classroom whereas almost any stimulus event that is under the control of a teacher can be used for a conditioned reinforcer; (b) conditioned reinforcers can be dispensed rapidly; (c) they are portable; and (d) their reinforcing effect may be more immediate since it depends only on the perception of receiving them and not on biological processing, as in the case of primary reinforcers (eating food).
In some institutions “token economies” have been set up based on these principles. Desired behaviors are explicitly defined (grooming or taking medication, for example), and token payoffs are given by the staff when they are performed. These conditioned reinforcers can later be exchanged by the patients for a whole array of rewards and privileges (Ayllon & Azrin, 1965; Holden, 1978). These systems of reinforcement are especially effective in modifying patients’ behaviors regarding self-care, upkeep of their environment, and, most importantly, increasing the quality of their positive social interaction. 【題組】50. Tokens as a conditioned reinforcer have been preferred by classroom teachers since ___________.
(A) they are prepared by students
(B) they endow the educators with a sense of authority
(C) they satisfy both physical and mental needs
(D) they are as flexible, and thus available, as the teachers’ creativity works
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