Language loss in children is a particular reality in the United States. Research by Hakuta and D’Andrea, Wong Fillmore, and Valdes
indicates the strength of the dominance of English in US society that places considerable pressure on language minority students not only to
acquire English at a young age, but also to replace their minority language with English. In such subtractive situations, the ideal of early
bilingualism meets a challenge due to a societal ethos that frequently does not favor bilingualism. Hakuta and D’Andrea found in the
United States that early exposure to English (e.g. in the home) can lead to a shift from Spanish to English and the potential loss of Spanish.
Such early exposure to English in the US may also decrease the chances of placement in a dual education program where Spanish is used.
This is not to warn against early bilingualism, but rather to suggest that the minority language needs care and attention, status and
much usage in the young child. This is not a limitation of early bilingualism, but rather a caution that minority language development needs
particular nurturing in political situations where another language is ever-dominant. For example, when English is introduced very early
and dominantly into a US language minority child’s life, the minority language may be insufficiently stable and developed, and may
therefore be replaced by the majority language. A loss of the minority language may have social, emotional, cognitive and educational
consequences for the child. As Wong Fillmore argued: “what is lost is no less than the means by which parents socialize their children:
When parents are unable to talk to their children, they cannot easily convey to them their values, beliefs, understandings, or wisdom about
how to cope with their experiences”.
The immigrant, refugee and asylum seeker context and its affect on family language patterns is under-researched, with most of the
studies on early childhood bilingualism being located in middle class, majority language and geographically stable families. Tannenbaum
and Howie argue that immigration often potentially means loss of the extended family and significant people, a loss of familiarity, family
cohesion, family “atmosphere” and secure attachment. Uprooting may affect not only the act of parenting but also the cultural and linguistic
development of young children and the language patterns of the immigrant family. Tannenbaum and Howie research on Chinese immigrant
families in Australia suggests that family relations affect language maintenance or loss. Families that are more cohesive, more positive in
relationships and with secure attachment patterns tend to foster language maintenance in young immigrant children.
(adopted from Colin Baker Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism) 【題組】47.A societal ethos in the US toward minority children __________________.
(A) puts higher status to their language (B) exposes minority children with their native language and culture
(C) does not support early bilingualism
(D) increases the chances of placement in a dual education program where minority language is used
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