19. Optimal foraging theory predicts that animal foragers should generally:
(A) Prefer the most abundant prey type because it's the most frequently encountered one.
(B) Always specialize in a singlee prey type regardless of abundance.
(C) Prefer the rarest prey type to minimize competition.
(D) Select diet to maximize energy gained per unit time, subject to constraints (e.g., handling time).

1.Which of the following statements about the niche concept is incorrect? (A) The Eltonian niche concept emphasizes a species' functional role and biotic interactions (e.g., trophic position). (B) The realized niche of a species is typically smaller than its fundamental niche. (C) The Hutchinsonian niche describes a niche as a multidimensional hypervolume. (D) The Grinnellian niche concept emphasizes phylogenetic relationships among species.

2.Which of the following statements about the River Continuum Concept is incorrect? (A) From upstream to downstream, FPOM is gradually replaced by increasingly abundant CPOM. (B) Many fishes in headwater streams require well-oxygenated water. (C) Microbes are significant consumers throughout much of the river continuum. (D) Benthic invertebrates can be classified into functional feeding groups (e.g., collectors, grazers/scrapers, shredders) based on how they acquire organic matter.

3.Regarding thermal regulation, which of the following statements is correct? (A) Plants do not thermoregulate; only animals can regulate body temperature. (B) Endotherms do not require thermoregulation because their body temperature is always constant. (C) Tropical animal species often have broader thermal neutral zones than arctic animal species. (D) Many species can survive extreme conditions by lowering their metabolic rate and entering dormancy.

4.Which is the best example of a density-dependent process? (A) A frost event killing seedlings across a landscape. (B) A wildfire reducing biomass in a forest. (C) Disease transmission increasing as host density increases. (D) A volcanic eruption burying a population.

5.The typical ecological efficiency between trophic levels is often approximated as: (A)~90% (B)~50% (C) ~10% (D)~1%

6.Which of the below is the definition of Net Primary Productivity (NPP)? (A) Gross primary productivity minus respiration by consumers. (B) Gross primary productivity plus respiration by plants. (C) Respiration by producers minus gross primary productivity. (D) Gross primary productivity minus respiration by producers.

7. A keystone predator most often increases community diversity by: (A) Preventing competitive dominance by a few species. (B) Eliminating all herbivores from the system. (C) Increasing net primary production directly. (D) Converting producers into consumers.

8.With the source-sink dynamics concept of metapopulation, a "sink" habitat is best described as which of the below? (A) Predators are always absent. (B) Local reproduction exceeds local mortality, exporting individuals. (C) Population growth rate remains at zero. (D) Local reproduction is insufficient to balance mortality without immigration.

9.A community with high evenness means: (A) Many species are present, and one dominates strongly. (B) Species richness is low. (C) The number of individuals is relatively close among species. (D) Only rare species are present.

10.What is the main focus of ecological stoichiometry? (A) The stochastic spatial distribution of species across landscapes. (B) The balance of complex energy flow, ignoring nutrients. (C) The constraints imposed by elemental ratios (e.g., C:N:P) on organisms and interactions. (D) The genetics of nutrient transporters.

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