6. Explain the relationship between concentration and electrical charge in a living cell. If you increase the amount of Potassium inside a cell, why does the cell end up with a more negative electrical charge?

7. The nematode C. elegans is considered a 'Model Organism.' Explain what this term means. Why does studying the DNA of a simple worm help us understand complex human diseases like cancer or Alzheimer's?

8. The development of mRNA vaccines represents a paradigm shift in vaccinology, moving from the delivery of exogenous antigens to the delivery of genetic instructions. Critically evaluate the role of the Lipid Nanoparticle (LNP) and the host ribosome in the efficacy of an mRNA vaccine. Explain why the mRNA must be chemically modified (e.g., using pseudouridine) to bypass the host's innate immune sensors. Finally, describe the intracellular pathway by which the resulting protein is presented on the cell surface via MHC class I molecules.

9. Explain how a 'position effect' can cause cancer. Specifically, describe what happens when a growth-regulating gene (a proto-oncogene) is moved to a new location on a different chromosome. Why does this result in a tumor?

10. Please give an example of C4 plants and elaborate on why C4 plants have an advantage in water conservation.

11. Explain the pathway involved in the acute (short-term) stress response, including:a) the gland involvedb) the hormones releasedc) the target tissues affectedd) the physiological effects of these hormones

12. Explain how the human kidney concentrates urine through the two-solute system, including:a) define what is the two-solute systemb) key structure involvedc) mechanism of concentrationd) physiological effects

 1. Chemiosmosis

2. Endosymbiont Theory

3. Allosteric Regulation

4. Alternative Splicing

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