During All Souls’ Day in England, the poor, mostly children, went from door to door begging for food. Families baked and shared ’soul cakes’ with them 26 for their prayers for a dead relative – possibly the origin of trick-or-treating. The tradition of 27 costumes most likely originated from Christians who wore masks or costumes in order to conceal their identities. There is no evidence of Halloween celebrations 28 many Irish migrants fleeing from the Potato famine introduced it to Americans in the 19th century. 29 , it still remained mainly confined to the immigrant communities until it slowly assimilated into mainstream society in the early 1990’s. In the late 1800s, Halloween was transformed into a holiday focusing on community 30 ghosts and witchcraft, and ’frightening’ or ’grotesque’ elements were discouraged.

   The story of Venice begins in the 5 th century A.D. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, barbarians from the north were raiding Rome’s former territories. In order to escape these raids, the Venetian population on the mainland escaped to the nearby marshes, and found refuge on the sandy islands of Torcello, Iesolo and Malamocco. Although the settlements were initially temporary in nature, the Venetians gradually inhabited the islands on a permanent basis. In order to have their buildings on a solid foundation, the Venetians first drove wooden stakes into the sandy ground. Then, wooden platforms were constructed on top of these stakes. Finally, the buildings were constructed on these platforms. This process took two years and two months to be completed. On top of that, the wood had to be obtained from the forests of Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro, and transported to Venice via water. Thus, one can imagine the scale of this undertaking.

   The use of wood as a supporting structure may seem as a surprise, since wood is relatively less durable than stone or metal. The secret to the longevity of Venice’s wooden foundation is the fact that they are submerged underwater. The decay of wood is caused by microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria. As the wooden support in Venice is submerged underwater, they are not exposed to oxygen, one of the elements needed by microorganisms to survive. In addition, the constant flow of salt water around and through the wood petrifies the wood over time, turning the wood into a hardened stone-like structure.

   As a city surrounded by water, Venice had a distinct advantage over her land-based neighbours. For a start, Venice was secure from enemy invasions. For instance, Pepin, the son of Charlemagne, attempted to invade Venice, but failed as he was unable to reach the islands on which the city was built. Venice eventually became a great maritime power in the Mediterranean. For instance, in 1204, Venice allied itself with the Crusaders and succeeded in capturing the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. Nevertheless, Venice started to decline in the 15 th century, and was eventually captured by Napoleon in 1797 when he invaded Italy