8. The major sterol in the fungal plasma membrane is _, which is also an important target of antifungal drugs.

(A) Stigmasterol

(B) Cholesterol

(C) Ergosterol

(D) Lanosterol

(E) Campesterol

9. Please choose the wrong statement regarding the nitrogen cycle mediated by bacteria. (A) Azotobacter species fix nitrogen from the air, and the product of nitrogen fixation is ammonia. (B) The anammox reaction is an aerobic process performed by bacteria in the phylum Planctomycetes, in which ammonium ion is oxidized to nitrogen gas using nitrite as the terminal electron acceptor. (C) Nitrification by bacteria is a two-step process in which ammonium is oxidized to nitrite and then to nitrate. (D) In denitrification, nitrates are reduced to nitrogen gas during anaerobic respiration. (E) Bacteria of the genera Nitrobacter and Nitrococcus convert nitrite to nitrate.

10. Which air filtration system is capable of removing 99.97% of particles? (A) Surgical mask (B) Cloth mask (C) Depth filter (D) HEPA filter (E) Membrane filter

11. The most common archaeal cell envelope structure external to the plasma membrane is the: (A) Capsule (B) Outer membrane (C) Peptidoglycan layer (D) Lipopolysaccharide layer (E) S-layer

12. Which phase of the microbial growth curve is associated with genetic diversity and evolution? (A) Lag phase (B) Exponential phase (C) Stationary phase (D) Death phase (E) Long-term stationary phase

13. Loss of the MinCDE system in (E) coli would most likely lead to: (A) Elongated filamentous cells (B) Septa forming near cell poles (C) Inhibition of DNA replication (D) Defective MreB localization (E) Failure of chromosome condensation

14. Why do Gram-positive bacteria retain crystal violet dye during Gram staining? (A) Presence of an outer membrane (B) High lipid content (C) Thick, highly cross-linked peptidoglycan (D) Teichoic acid removal (E) Porin closure

15. Which conclusion best explains why Mycoplasma (黴漿菌) species are intrinsically resistant to β-lactam antibiotics? (A) They lack ribosomes (B) They possess an outer membrane (C) They have altered porins (D) They lack a cell wall (E) They degrade antibiotics enzymatically

16. Which limitation applies to Koch's postulates? (A) Some pathogens cannot be cultured (B) They cannot be used for bacteria (C) They require genetic sequencing (D) They apply only to viruses (E) They exclude animal models

17. Which factor most limits the usefulness of fluorescence microscopy for long-term live-cell imaging? (A) Low numerical aperture (B) Requirement for thin specimens (C) Photobleaching and phototoxicity (D) Inability to label proteins (E) Low magnification

18. Which of the following sentence best describes why viruses are considered necessary intracellular pathogens? (A) They can reproduce independently, but they tend to replicate faster inside cells. (B) They lack ribosomes and mitochondria and must hijack host machinery to make new virions. (C) They reproduce only through cell division and require host nutrients for energy. (D) They are always larger than bacteria, so they must use host cells for transport. (E) They can replicate their genome outside cells but require cells only for entry.

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