7. 舉出三個可能配合pasteurization之其他防腐措施(6%) 為何食品工廠 常標榜所進行的 pasteurization程序是「高溫短時間」而非「低溫長時 間」(4%)

8.說明 sauerkraut發酵過程中微生物之變化(8%)

9.寫出三個作為indicator organism應具有之條件(6%)

(a) selective and differential medium

(b) sulfur stinker

(c)merabiosis

(d) prebiotics(16%)

一、試述統籌分配稅款在財政收支劃分制度上之定位如何?現行制度有何 須改進之處?(50%)

二、預算法第51前段規定,總預算案應於會計年度開始1個月前由立 法院議决,並於會計年度開始 15日前總公布之。惟以我中央政府 總預算案審議實況為例,卻往往未能如審議完成。基此,2020年12月 下旬媒體曾以政府恐斷炊!立院將休會總預算還未審民進黨開臨時 會拼三讀」作為標題報導此事。試從預算法觀點,申論總預算未如期完 時,政府否將「斷炊」?現行預算法规定之妥當性又如何?(50%)

請閱讀以下4篇論文之後,摘要寫出每篇内容之主旨(不超過250字)請勿逐字翻譯。 (1) (25%) Nature conservation Iiterature and policy instruments mainly focus on the impacts of buman development and the benefits of nature conservation for oceans and aboveground terrestrial organisms (e.g,, birds and plants) and processes (e.g, food production), but these efforts almost completely ignore the majority of terrestrial biodiversity that is unseen and living in the soil (1). Little is known about the conservation status of most soil organisms and the effects of nature conservation policies on soil systems. Yet like "canaries in the coal mine," when soil organisms begin to disappear, e ecosystems will soon start to underperform, potentially hindering their vital functions for humankind. Soil biodiversity and its ecosystem functions thus require explicit consideration when cstablishing nature protection priorities and policies and when designing new conservation areas. To , we lay out a global soil biodiversity and ecosystem function monitoring frame ework to be considered in the context of the post-2020 sions of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). To support this framework, we suggest a suite of soil ecological indicators based on essential biodiversity variables (EBVs) (2) (see the figure and table S3) that directly link to current global targets such as the ones established under the CBD, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the Paris Agreement (table S1). Soils not only are a main repository of terrestrial biodiversity, harboring roughly one-quarter of all species on Earth, but also provide a wide variety of functions (e.g., nutrient cycling, waste decor position) and benefits (e.g., climate regulation, pathogen resistance); they regulate the diversity and functioning of aboveground systems, including their contributions to human well-being (3). If we do not protect soils for the next generations, future aboveground biodiversity and food production cannot be guaranteed. Nonetheless, recent calls to expand nature protection (4), as well as many other initiatives aimed to shape future environmental policies (5), do not consider the specific requirements of soil biodiversity and associated ecosystem functions (6, 7). Discussions and data concerning soils and their sustainability have long focused on either their vulnerability to physical impacts (e.g., soil erosion) or improvements to their food production potential (c.g., through fertilization). These narrow perspectives, often missing tangible indicators and discon nnected from environmental mon onitoring, limit a wider discussion on the ccol logical importance of soil biodiversity and its role in maintaining ecosystem functioning beyond food production systems. The prevailing emphasis bas also prevented soils from becoming a more mainstream nature conservation priority. Although initiatives to provide a more holistic representation of soils as ecosystem services providers exist [e.g., (8)], standardized and timely information to track policy targets related to soils is missing, particularly at global scales. These information gaps have precluded the delivery of a robust scientific message supporting the importance of soil biodiversity and have delayed the inclusion of soil biodiversity in nature conservation debates. Linking soil biodiversity to policy Links between global soil essential biodiversity variables (EBVs) (outer ring) are prioritized by the Soil Biodiversity Observation Network (SoilBON) and policy sectors (center) through the use of soil ecological indicators (inner ring; table S3). Thin lines correspond to links between EBVs and soil indicators; thicker lines refer to links between each soil indicator and specific policy sectors. The EBVs for soil systems are proposed as a holistic system approach (table S2), where soil organisms are intertwined with relevant soil chemical, physical, and functional properties, ntributing to overall societal well-being. Scc table SI for further information on links to specific policy targets and policies. Sec table S2 for details of the EBVs.

(2) (25%) Photosystem II (PSII) is an oxidoreductase found in the thylakoid membrane of organisms that perform oxygenic photosynthesis. The fully assembled PSII complex consists of approximately 20 protein subunits and multiple redox-active cofactors that allow PSII to function as a catalyst for the light-driven oxidation of water and concomitant reduction of plastoquinone (1-4). This conversion of sunlight to chemical energy initiates the photosynthetic electron transport chain and sustains nearly all life on Earh. The active site for water oxidation, a Mn4CaO5 cluster (henceforth Mn cluster), is buried within the PSlI complex near the lumen-membrane interface (5). This buried position limits water access to the active site, a key feature that promotes the reaction. When PSII is modified to allow an unrestricted flow of water to the active site, incomplete water oxidation occurs, forming hydrogen peroxide (H202) that isreduced to the harmful hydroxyl radical (HO.) (6-9). The buried active site minimizes, but does not completely prevent, such a side reaction pathway, allowing some reactive oxygen species (ROS) to be produced under physiological conditions (10, 11). ROS-induced damage to PSII is the major mechanism believed to be responsible for the frequent PSII turnover that occurs in cells (2, 12), and oxidative modifications of PSII residues near the Mn cluster have been detected (11, 13-17). Although PSII is the only known enzyme capable of complete water oxidation, it is not the only enzyme for which water is more than just a solvent. Aquaporins transport water across membranes; cytochrome c oxidases produce water as a by-product while pumping protons; and the haloalkane dehalogenases use specific interactions with carefully placed internal water molccules to achieve catalysis. For these and many other enzymes, it is becoming increasingly clear that water dynamics is exquisitely tuned by the protein scaffold to fit the enizyme's function. For example, specific channels regulate the accessibility, geometrical positioning, and flow rate of water molecules within the abovementioned enzymes and in many others (18-21). Water transport within PSII is of prime interest, given water's unprecedented role as substrate and the problems associated with unrestricted water access to the active site. A number of computational studies have searched for water channels by examining cavities within the static PSII crystal structure (22-24) or by performing molecular dynamics (MD) simulations (25-30). Pathways for removal of the reaction products, dioxygen and protons, have also been considered (22-24, 27. 28, 30) because the extended presenc ce of dioxygen can lead to protein damage (from conversion to singlet dioxygen) (31), and of protons, to inhibition of catalysis (due to improper redox leveling) (32,33). These computational studies have identified several putative channel systems within PSII. Here, we took an experimental approach to identify oxidized residues on the lumenal side of PSII from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 (henceforth Synechocystis) by using high-res solution tandem mass spectrometry (MS). We reasoned that after generation near the Mn cluster, ROS would diffuse through putative channels that lead away from the cluster and modify most readily the residues that line the walls of these channels. The app proach is related to a typical hydroxyI radical footprinting experiment, in which hydroxyI radicals are generaled from solvent water molecules by an x-ray or laser pulse (34-37) or via a metal-catalyzed reaction (36, 38-40) and then modify nearby residues. The modified residues, detected by MS, leave a trai! of oxidative damage that, when identified, can illuminate structural aspects of the system being studied. Hence, the ROS produced at the Mn cluster serve as a built-in footprinting reagent. Using this approach, we identified three nearly continuous formations of oxidized residues that are centered at the Mn cluster and radiate outward all the way to the bulk solvent. Hydrogen peroxide and the hydroxyI radical are the two major ROS known to be produced at the Mn cluster (6, 11). The hydroxyl radical, by far the more reactive species, is short-lived but can diffuse several tens of angstroms after generation at a protcin site (38, 41, 42). Given the similar size and hydrophilicity of HOㆍ and water (43), an HOㆍ diffusion pathway is likely to be favorable for water as well. We conclude that the three ROS channels identified in our study represent three possible water channels in PSII. We discuss the implications of our results for the delivery of water to the site of its oxidation in PSII.

110年 - 110 國立臺灣大學_碩士班招生考試_食品科技研究所丙組:食品微生物學#101273