57. Which of the following reactions requires vitamin B12 as a cofactor?
(A) Conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate
(B) Conversion of homocysteine to methionine
(C) Conversion of succinyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA
(D) Conversion of fumarate to malate
(E) Conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate

1. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014 was awarded for discoveries concerning peripheral immune tolerance. Which of the following statements is NOT correct? (A) Peripheral immune tolerance mechanisms restrain self-reactive T cells that escape clonal deletion during thymic maturation. (B) Defects in peripheral immune tolerance may cause systemic lupus erythematosus. (C) CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells contribute to the maintenance of peripheral immune tolerance. (D) FOXP3 is a master regulator of cytotoxic T cells that destroy self-reactive effector T cells. (E) Immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked syndrome (IPEX) are caused by mutations in the FOXP3 gene.

2. Which of the following pathogen - infectious disease pairings is CORREСТ?

3. During embryonic neurulation, which of the following statements is NOT correct? (A) Neurulation begins as cells from the dorsal ectoderm form the notochord. (B) Sonic hedgehog (SHH) secreted by the notochord is involved in the formation of the neural plate. (C) Neural plate curves inward to form the neural tube. (D) Spina bifida is a type of neural tube defect. (E) Vitamin B9deficiency is associated with neural tube defects.

4. Which of the following functions is NOT primarily regulated by quorum sensing? (A) Population control (B) DNA repair (C) Biofilm formation (D) Virulence factor secretion (E) Bioluminescence production

5. Homeobox-containing genes (Hox genes) play important roles in animal embryonic development by regulating the expression of many other genes that influence morphology. Which of the following statements about Hox genes is NOT correct? (A) The Hox proteins contain a helix-turn-helix structure that is responsible for DNA binding. (B) The subcellular localization of Hox proteins is primarily on the cell membrane. (C) Gain-of-function of Hox genes often results in developmental defects. (D) Loss-of-function of Hox genes often results in developmental defects. (E) Hox genes regulate the development of the anterior-posterior axis in most animals.

6. Which ofthe following materials is NOT primarily involved in mediating communication between cells? (A) Tunneling nanotubes (B) Exosomes (C) Inositol triphosphate (IP3) (D) Hormones (E) Cytokine

7. According to current knowledge of microorganisms, which of the following statements is CORRECT? (A) All bacteria have a cell wall. (B) All viruses use DNA as their genetic material. (C) All algae contain chloroplasts. (D) All fungal cell membranes contain cholesterol. (E) All parasites have a nucleus.

8. Bacteriophages, or simply phages, are the viruses that infect bacteria. Which of the following statements about current knowledge of phages is NOT correct? (A) The viral genome is enclosed by a protein-based structure called the capsid. (B) During the lysogenic cycle, phage DNA and viral structures are synthesized and assembled into prophages. (C) During the lytic cycle, bacterial cells lyse and release phages. (D) Bacterial cells defend against phage infection using the CRISPR-Cas system. (E) Phages provide an alternative strategy for treating antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections.

9. Which of the following options correctly identifies three evolutionary adaptations that enable some animals to directly exchange matter (such as gases, nutrients, and wastes) between their body cells and the environment? (A) A gastrovascular cavity, a body with only two cell layers, and a flat body shape. (B) An external respiratory surface, a small body size, and a complex circulatory system. (C) A large body volume, a long tubular body, and a thick protective cuticle. (D) An unbranched internal surface, a microscopic body size, and a thick skin. (E) A high surface area-to-volume ratio, a flattened body shape, and a branched internal digestive tract.

10. If an unfertilized egg (oocyte) is treated with a chelating agent (such as EDTA) that binds and sequesters free calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions, which of the following processes will be specifically blocked after sperm entry? (A) The acrosomal reaction in the sperm head. (B) The initial depolarization of the egg plasma membrane. (C) The fusion of the sperm and egg plasma membranes. (D) The formation of the fertilization envelope through the cortical reaction. (E) The completion of Meiosis II within the oocyte.

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