51. Often referred to as the "hunger hormone," __________ is a peptide hormone secreted primarily by endocrine cells of the stomach. Its concentration rises sharply before meals to stimulate appetite-regulating centers in the hypothalamus and declines following stomach distension after food intake.
(A) glucagon
(B) peptide YY (PYY)
(C) leptin
(D) ghrelin
(E) insulin

7. The liver is involved in detoxification of many poisons and drugs. Which of the following structures is primarily involved in this process and therefore abundant in liver cells? (A) rough ER (B) smooth ER (C) Golgi apparatus (D) transport vesicles (E) nuclear envelope

8. What is saltatory conduction? (A) conduction of impulses across electrical synapses (B) an action potential that skips the axon hillock in moving from the dendritic region to the axon terminal (C) rapid movement of an action potential reverberating back and forth along a neuron (D) jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next in a myelinated neuron (E) jumping from one neuron to an adjacent neuron

9. Which organelle in the following is composed of an extensive network of membrane-bounded tubules and sacs, and when it malfunctions, results in the accumulation of misfolded proteins within cells, which has been found as a key driver in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases? (A) ribosome (B) endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (C) Golgi apparatus (D) lysosome (E) mitochondria

10. The following items are events in a typical signaling pathway: (1) An activated transcription factor translocates into the nucleus. (2) A growth factor binds to its receptor. (3) Transcription of a specific gene is initiated. (4) A kinase cascade is triggered. In what sequence does the signaling pathway proceed? (A) (1) → (2) → (4) → (3) (B) (2) → (3) → (1) → (4) (C) (2) → (4) → (1) → (3) (D) (3) → (1) → (4) → (2) (E) (1) → (3) → (4) → (2)

11. The CRISPR-Cas9 system utilizes a specific molecule known as __________ to recognize and bind to a complementary DNA sequence, which then directs the Cas9 nuclease to create a double-strand break at a precise genomic location. (A) transfer RNA (tRNA) (B) DNA ligase (C) guide RNA (gRNA) (D) protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) (E) trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA)

12. Which of the following is NOT a hormone secreted by endocrine glands located in the human brain? (A) vasopressin (B) calcitonin (C) prolactin (D) melatonin (E) oxytocin

13. Suppose a person begins breathing very rapidly while resting (hyperventilating), which of the following best describes how homeostasis is restored? (A) Rapid breathing decreases blood CO2 levels, thereby raising blood pH. The frontal cortex detects the change and reduces stimulation of the rib muscles and the diaphragm, thereby decreasing the breathing rate. (B) Rapid breathing increases blood CO2 levels, thereby causing the blood pH to drop. The hypothalamus detects the change and decreases stimulation of the rib muscles and the diaphragm, thereby reducing the breathing rate. (C) Rapid breathing decreases blood CO2 levels, thereby raising blood pH. The hypothalamus detects the change and reduces stimulation of the rib muscles and the diaphragm, thereby decreasing the breathing rate. (D) Rapid breathing increases blood CO2 levels, thereby causing the blood pH to drop. The medulla oblongata detects the change and reduces stimulation of the rib muscles and the diaphragm, thereby decreasing the breathing rate. (E) Rapid breathing decreases blood CO2 levels, thereby raising blood pH. The medulla oblongata detects the change and reduces stimulation of the rib muscles and the diaphragm, thereby decreasing the breathing rate.

14. Meiosis increases genetic variation through independent assortment and crossing over. In which stage of meiosis does crossing over occur? (A) prophase I (B) prophase II (C) metaphase I (D) metaphase II (E) anaphase I

15. What is the primary function of the kidneys in the human body? (A) Filtration of blood and excretion of waste products (B) Production of red blood cells (C) Digestion of food (D) Regulation of body temperature (E) Generate energy

16. In the presence of a competitive inhibitor, which of the following changes in Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics is expected? (A) Vmax decreases, Km decreases. (B) Vmax remains unchanged, Km decreases. (C) Vmax decreases, Km increases (D) Vmax remains unchanged, Km increases (E) Vmax increases, Km increases

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