54. In guinea pigs, black fur ( B ) is dominant to brown fur ( b ). If two heterozygous black guinea pigs are crossed and produce exactly two offspring, what is the probability that the first offspring is black and the second is brown?
(A) 1/16
(B) 1/8
(C) 3/16
(D) 1/4
(E) 3/8

55. The initial creation of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells by Dr. Shinya Yamanaka (2012 Nobel Prize) from fully differentiated cells involves which specific molecular technique? (A) Introducing four master regulatory genes into a differentiated cell using a modified adenovirus. (B) Utilizing a modified retrovirus to insert cloned copies of four specific stem cell master regulatory genes into the genome of a differentiated cell. (C) Fusing a differentiated cell with an embryonic stem cell to induce reprogramming through cytoplasmic factors. (D) Directly injecting mRNA transcripts of four key transcription factors into a differentiated cell. (E) Exposing differentiated cells to a specific cocktail of growth factors and small molecules that reverse the epigenetic landscape to a pluripotent state.

56. A widespread terrestrial species becomes divided when rising sea levels isolate a portion of the population on a newly formed island. Genetic analyses show rapid divergence in allele frequencies between mainland and island populations, and after several thousand generations, individuals from the two populations produce inviable hybrids when brought back into contact. Throughout the isolation period, there was no evidence of gene flow between populations. Which evolutionary process is best supported by this scenario? (A) Introgressive hybridization maintaining genetic connectivity (B) Behavioral isolation evolving within a continuous population (C) Instantaneous reproductive isolation caused by genome duplication (D) Divergence following geographic isolation with interrupted gene flow (E) Ecological speciation driven by niche differentiation within the same habitat

57. Epinephrine signaling, which stimulates glycogen breakdown in liver cells, relies on a G protein- coupled receptor (GPCR) pathway. If a mutation renders the G protein’s ? -subunit unable to hydrolyze GTP to GDP, how will the cellular response be affected? (A) The signaling pathway will fail to initiate. (B) Adenylyl cyclase will remain permanently inhibited. (C) Glycogen breakdown will occur continuously. (D) The receptor will become desensitized to epinephrine immediately. (E) The cell will require higher concentrations of epinephrine to initiate a response.

58. A patient is diagnosed with a hereditary form of colon cancer caused by a defect in a mismatch repair enzyme. How does this specific enzymatic failure contribute to the development of cancer? (A) It prevents the repair of DNA double-strand breaks, leading to large-scale chromosomal abnormalities. (B) It allows incorrectly paired nucleotides introduced during DNA replication to persist, increasing the overall mutation rate. (C) It causes the DNA to become more tightly wound into heterochromatin, silencing tumor suppressor genes. (D) It fails to remove thymine dimers caused by environmental mutagens like UV light. (E) It enhances the activity of telomerase, leading to cellular immortality.

59. Researchers are reconstructing a phylogeny for five vertebrate taxa. Two distantly related desert species exhibit nearly identical limb morphology adapted for burrowing, yet multilocus genomic analyses reveal thousands of shared derived nucleotide substitutions between one of these desert species and a forest-dwelling taxon. Which line of evidence provides the strongest support for inferring true common ancestry among these taxa? (A) Overlapping geographic distributions (B) Occupation of comparable ecological niches (C) Similar limb morphology associated with burrowing behavior (D) Convergent morphological traits shaped by environmental pressure (E) Shared derived DNA sequence substitutions across multiple independent loci

60. The photosynthesis of CAM plants is considered an adaptation to arid environments primarily because it _____. (A) eliminates the need for Rubisco (B) performs the Calvin cycle at night (C) reduces water loss by temporally separating CO₂ uptake and fixation (D) increases ATP production efficiency (E) prevents all photorespiration

61. Statins are widely used medications that effectively treat high blood cholesterol, a primary risk factor for atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. What is the primary mechanism by which these drugs lower cholesterol levels in the blood? (A) Blocking the intestine from absorbing dietary cholesterol (B) Promoting the conversion of body cholesterol into bile acids for elimination (C) Blocking the HMG-CoA reductase enzyme from turning 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl- CoA into mevalonate during cholesterol production (D) Accelerating the breakdown and clearance of the HMG-CoA reductase enzyme (E) Directly boosting the activity of LDL receptors in the liver

62. Which statement about ketone bodies is correct? (A) During prolonged starvation, the brain cannot use ketone bodies and relies exclusively on glucose. (B) In ketoacidosis, excess acetone is exhaled through the lung. (C) Ketone bodies are produced primarily when the insulin-to-glucagon ratio is high after a carbohydrate-rich meal. (D) Ketone bodies are produced mainly in the cytosol of extrahepatic tissues such as muscle. (E) During ketosis, ketone bodies are readily converted into glucose in the liver.

63. How does glucokinase (hexokinase IV) differ from hexokinase I? (A) It has a higher affinity for glucose and is not inhibited by high glucose levels. (B) It enables the liver to export free glucose into the bloodstream when blood glucose drops. (C) It needs a higher glucose concentration to reach maximal activity. (D) It helps prevent the liver from competing with other tissues for glucose when glucose levels are high. (E) It allows the pancreas to trigger insulin release when blood glucose levels are low.

64. Which advantage(s) explain why organisms often store energy as triacylglycerols rather than polysaccharides? (A) The carbon atoms in triacylglycerols are more reduced and they are hydrophobic, so little water needs to be stored with them. (B) The carbon atoms in triacylglycerols are more reduced. (C) Because triacylglycerols are hydrophobic, they do not require storage with large amounts of water. (D) Triacylglycerols contain more oxygen than polysaccharides, making them more efficient to oxidize. (E) Triacylglycerols contain more oxygen than polysaccharides, making them more efficient to oxidize, and they are hydrophobic, so little water needs to be stored with them.

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